I12-JEEP: Joint Engineering, Environmental and Processing
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Yunhui
Chen
,
Samuel J.
Clark
,
David M.
Collins
,
Sebastian
Marussi
,
Simon A.
Hunt
,
Danielle
Fenech
,
Thomas
Connolley
,
Robert C.
Atwood
,
Oxana V.
Magdysyuk
,
Gavin J.
Baxter
,
Martyn A.
Jones
,
Chu Lun Alex
Leung
,
Peter D.
Lee
Diamond Proposal Number(s):
[20096]
Abstract: The governing mechanistic behaviour of Directed Energy Deposition Additive Manufacturing (DED-AM) is revealed by a combined in situ and operando synchrotron X-ray imaging and diffraction study of a nickel-base superalloy, IN718. Using a unique DAE-AM process replicator, real-space imaging enables quantification of the melt-pool boundary and flow dynamics during solidification. This imaging knowledge was also used to informed precise diffraction measurements of temporally resolved microstructural phases during transformation and stress development with a spatial resolution of 100 µm. The diffraction quantified thermal gradient enabled a dendritic solidification microstructure to be predicted and coupled to the stress orientation and magnitude. The fast cooling rate entirely suppressed the formation of secondary phases or recrystallisation in the solid-state. Upon solidification, the stresses rapidly increase to the yield strength during cooling. This insight, combined with the large solidification range of IN718 suggests that the accumulated plasticity exhausts the ductility of the alloy, causing liquation cracking. This study has revealed additional fundamental mechanisms governing the formation of highly non-equilibrium microstructures during DED-AM.
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Mar 2021
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I12-JEEP: Joint Engineering, Environmental and Processing
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Diamond Proposal Number(s):
[16096]
Abstract: Thermal shocks are an important incident in operation of a pressure vessel which can have a significant impact on the structural integrity of the vessel. Often experiments that consider the state of the vessel before and after the thermal shock are used to evaluate the effects of the thermal shock. The studies can be complemented by time-resolved numerical simulations, which may be validated against the final state of the vessel obtained experimentally, to infer the transient response of the material. The transient response is important as the material experiences the highest level of stress in a short period which can induce catastrophic failure. This paper reports time-resolved experimental quantification of strain in reactor pressure vessel material during thermal shock measured by in-situ synchrotron diffraction. Specimens were extracted from a plate of nuclear pressure vessel steel with a nickel alloy cladding deposited by overlay welding. The specimens, with and without cracks, were subjected to thermal loading by heating then rapidly quenching the cladding in cold water. Strains were measured during thermal loading at a point near the crack tip from which the stress state around the crack tip was calculated and compared with a transient finite element model of the experiment. It was found that the peak near-tip stress occurred within the first second after the onset of rapid cooling. It was demonstrated from experimental measurements that the peak stress intensity factor occurred during thermal shock, rather than under steady conditions before or after the thermal shock. It was shown that although the finite element simulation predicts the steady state condition of the material after thermal shock, its transient response dependents significantly on a number of inputs with high uncertainty, making its time-resolved results unreliable for high-fidelity integrity assessments.
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Oct 2020
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I12-JEEP: Joint Engineering, Environmental and Processing
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Diamond Proposal Number(s):
[17222]
Abstract: It is well known that titanium and some titanium alloys creep at ambient temperature, resulting in a significant fatigue life reduction when a stress dwell is included in the fatigue cycle. It is thought that localised time dependent plasticity in ‘soft’ grains oriented for easy plastic slip leads to load shedding and an increase in stress within a neighbouring ‘hard’ grain that is poorly oriented for easy slip. Quantifying this time dependent plasticity process is key to successfully predicting the complex cold dwell fatigue problem. In this work, synchrotron X-ray diffraction during stress relaxation experiments was performed to characterise the time dependent plastic behaviour of commercially pure titanium (grade 4). Lattice strains were measured by tracking the diffraction peak shift from multiple plane families (21 diffraction rings) as a function of their orientation with respect to the loading direction. The critical resolved shear stress, activation energy and activation volume were established for both prismatic and basal slip modes by fitting a crystal plasticity finite element model to the lattice strain relaxation responses measured along the loading axis for three strong reflections. Prismatic slip was the easier mode having both a lower critical resolved shear stress (
MPa and
MPa) and activation energy (
and
). The prism slip parameters correspond to a stronger strain rate sensitivity compared to basal slip. This slip system dependence on strain rate has a significant effect on stress redistribution to hard grain orientations during cold dwell fatigue.
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Aug 2020
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I12-JEEP: Joint Engineering, Environmental and Processing
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Diamond Proposal Number(s):
[23674]
Abstract: The heat treatment response of the new superalloy ABD-900AM, designed specifically for additive manufacturing (AM), is studied. The as-fabricated microstructure is characterised at multiple length-scales including by X-ray synchrotron diffractometry and transmission Kikuchi diffraction imaging. The very high cooling rates arising during the process suppress γ′ precipitation; thus the details of heat treatment are shown to be important in establishing properties. The yield stress and tensile strength developed are marginally improved by super-solvus rather than sub-solvus heat treatment, but the ductility is then compromised. The tensile behaviour is superior to the heritage alloy IN939 which has a comparable fraction of γ′; this is due to the larger refractory content of ABD-900AM and its finer scale precipitation. The internal strains developed during processing are sufficient to promote recrystallization during super-solvus heat treatment which breaks down microstructural anisotropy and promotes grain growth; however, this effect is absent for the sub-solvus case.
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Aug 2020
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I11-High Resolution Powder Diffraction
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Diamond Proposal Number(s):
[18972]
Abstract: Synchrotron grazing incidence X-ray diffraction has been used to newly reveal the heating rate dependent oxidation reactions that develop on a polycrystalline nickel-based superalloy. A continuous layer of precursor oxide was shown to form during the heating stage. Their approximate growth rates, their effect on local surface compositions of the alloy substrate, and their degree of interface planarity are considered critical in determining subsequent oxidation reactions when held for extended thermal exposures. The precursor oxides were predominantly nickel or cobalt based (NiO/CoO and Co3O4/NiCo2O4). Following the fastest heating rates (40 °C min−1 and above), the stable Cr2O3 phase formed, inhibiting Ni or Co diffusion to the surface. At slower heating rates (10–20 °C min−1), no evidence of the stable Cr2O3 was found, even after 200 h at elevated thermal exposure, instead continued growth of the precursor oxides was observed. Heating at 5 °C min−1 gave rise to an intriguing zone where sufficient precursor and favourable kinetics enabled the formation of a spinel, NiCr2O4, surface layer. Cross sections observed with electron microscopy confirmed this to be planar and continuous. Heating at the slowest tested 2 °C min−1 contrarily gives a non-protective surface layer comprising an outwardly growing NiO/CoO precursor oxide on top of an inwardly growing mixed oxide. The quantities, interfacial morphologies of oxides of the precursor oxide grown and the possible thermodynamic reactions that lead to their formation are discussed.
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Oct 2019
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I12-JEEP: Joint Engineering, Environmental and Processing
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Abstract: Nuclear reactor pressure vessels must be able to withstand thermal shock due to emergency cooling during a loss of coolant accident. Demonstrating structural integrity during thermal shock is difficult due to the complex interaction between thermal stress, residual stress, and stress caused by internal pressure. Finite element and analytic approaches exist to calculate the combined stress, but validation is limited. This study describes an experiment which aims to measure stress in a slice of clad reactor pressure vessel during thermal shock using time-resolved synchrotron X-ray diffraction.
A test rig was designed to subject specimens to thermal shock, whilst simultaneously enabling synchrotron X-ray diffraction measurements of strain. The specimens were extracted from a block of SA508 Grade 4N reactor pressure vessel steel clad with Alloy 82 nickel-base alloy. Surface cracks were machined in the cladding. Electric heaters heat the specimens to 350°C and then the surface of the cladding is quenched in a bath of cold water, representing thermal shock. Six specimens were subjected to thermal shock on beamline I12 at Diamond Light Source, the UK’s national synchrotron X-ray facility. Time-resolved strain was measured during thermal shock at a single point close to the crack tip at a sample rate of 30 Hz. Hence, stress intensity factor vs time was calculated assuming K-controlled near-tip stress fields. This work describes the experimental method and presents some key results from a preliminary analysis of the data.
Copyright © 2018 by ASME
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Jul 2018
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I12-JEEP: Joint Engineering, Environmental and Processing
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Diamond Proposal Number(s):
[9333]
Abstract: The influence of statistics on calculated lattice strains has been studied by comparing crystal plasticity finite element (CPFE) calculations with strains measured experimentally. Experimentally, when Bragg's law is obeyed, a plane normal must lie within a narrow orientation range (∼ 0.02° for synchrotron diffraction), or Bragg tolerance. However, CPFE models consider only a small number of grains compared to experiments, necessitating a justification of the statistically representative volume. It also becomes necessary to assess the threshold of Bragg tolerance allowable for the determined statistically representative volume. In this study, an 8 × 8 × 8 model was deemed as statistically representative such that only small benefits are obtained in terms of lattice strain calculations by adopting larger models such as 10 × 10 × 10. Based on the selected model, an allowable Bragg tolerance of approximately 5° was calculated. Also highlighted was the coupling between lattice strain, texture, hardening and applied boundary condition which are discriminators that will affect the choice of model size and Bragg tolerance threshold.
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May 2018
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I12-JEEP: Joint Engineering, Environmental and Processing
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Diamond Proposal Number(s):
[10053]
Abstract: Recent developments of synchrotron X-ray sources and dedicated high-energy beamlines are now enabling strain measurements from large volumes of industrially relevant metallic materials. Such capability is allowing the validation of novel and alternative nondestructive experimental methods of strain measurement or computational models of complex deformation processes. This study describes the first dynamic contact strain measurement of a ball bearing using stroboscopic energy dispersive X-ray diffraction. The experiment probed the dynamic contact strain in the outer raceway of a test bearing. The inner raceway of the bearing was attached to a shaft rotating at 150 revolutions per minute, and the outer raceway, where the measurements were made, was fixed in a stationary bearing housing. A triggering system was used to synchronise the data acquisition of the energy dispersive X-ray diffraction detector with the bearing rotation. Specifically, diffraction data were acquired, stroboscopically, from the material volume within the raceway, in a known location, when the ball was positioned directly below it. A total of 20 s of accumulated diffraction signal was recorded, acquiring 2 ms of data per revolution, providing diffraction patterns of sufficient quality for the dynamic contact strain to be measured. Macromechanical stress field was calculated from the micromechanical strains measured from five lattice planes. This allowed a comparison of the experimentally measured stress field and that of finite element simulations. Good agreement was observed between the finite element results and experimental measurements indicating the applicability of this novel dynamic strain measurement technique for tribological systems.
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Jan 2017
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I12-JEEP: Joint Engineering, Environmental and Processing
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Diamond Proposal Number(s):
[9333]
Open Access
Abstract: Common alloys used in sheet form can display a significant ductility benefit when they are subjected to
certain multiaxial strain paths. This effect has been studied here for a polycrystalline ferritic steel using a
combination of Nakajima bulge testing, X-ray diffraction during biaxial testing of cruciform samples and
crystal plasticity finite element (CPFE) modelling. Greatest gains in strain to failure were found when
subjecting sheets to uniaxial loading followed by balanced biaxial deformation, resulting in a total
deformation close to plane-strain. A combined strain of approximately double that of proportional
loading was achieved. The evolution of macrostrain, microstrain and texture during non-proportional
loading were evaluated by in-situ high energy synchrotron diffraction. The results have demonstrated
that the inhomogeneous strain accumulation from non-proportional deformation is strongly dependent
on texture and the applied strain-ratio of the first deformation pass. Experimental diffraction evidence is
supported by results produced by a novel method of CPFE-derived diffraction simulation. Using
constitutive laws selected on the basis of good agreement with measured lattice strain development, the
CPFE model demonstrated the capability to replicate ductility gains measured experimentally.
© 2016 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY
license
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Nov 2016
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I12-JEEP: Joint Engineering, Environmental and Processing
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Diamond Proposal Number(s):
[9333]
Open Access
Abstract: A methodology to simulate X-ray diffraction lattice strains using crystal plasticity, replicating in-situ synchrotron experimental measurements during the deformation of a low-carbon steel, has been developed. Uniquely, the model calculated lattice strains for full Debye-Scherrer diffraction rings, providing the in-plane lattice strain distributions determined from crystal plasticity. Thus, a direct method of comparison between experimental and crystal plasticity results becomes possible. The model considered two forms of hardening whilst subjecting the material to two dissimilar proportional strain-paths; uniaxial and balanced biaxial deformation. Both deformation paths showed influence on resulting lattice strain distributions which were also found to depend upon texture. Biaxial straining led to a stronger dependence on the material’s hardening behaviour and this was attributed to the higher rate of work hardening seen under biaxial compared to uniaxial straining. However, biaxial deformation showed quite isotropic lattice strains distribution, irrespective of initial texture or hardening. Quantitatively, good agreement between the computed and experimentally determined lattice strain distributions was obtained for each strain path. This success demonstrates the possibility of calibrating crystal plasticity model parameters using such methodologies, or simply to provide insight into the governing mechanisms in polycrystal deformation.
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Apr 2016
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